This article examines the practical issues, such as financial, social, health, and legal factors, that affect the quality of parenting given by grandparents raising their grandchildren. The cultural context, ethnic considerations, and socioeconomic factors that impact the well-being of these children  are also  reviewed.

Any examination of this topic has to recognize the precipitating fact or(s) that compel a grandparent to take on the responsibility of raising a grandchild, and how those factors may significantly influence the longevity of, attitude toward, and ultimate quality of parenting for the child. Death, disability, divorce, or some type of sudden, traumatic event may compel a grandparent to have a different perspective on taking on this responsibility verses a long-term situation that ultimately renders the parent(s) unable or unwilling to fulfill their parenting responsibility (Weber & Waldrop, 2000). The former situation may reveal a close, positive, and mutually respectful relationship between the grandparent and the parents of the grandchildren. The latter situation can reflect  stressful, possibly violent, and intense interactions between grandparents and the parents of their grandchild. Moreover, the grandchildren of the latter cohort may have experienced abandonment, abuse, or violence by their parents and have deep-seated emotional issues that the first group may not possess. These factors, along with age (of both grandparents and children), prior relationship, grandparent involvement, parental involvement, and inherent personality and psychological make-up of the child, will greatly influence the relationship and parenting effect of the grandparent (Weber & Waldrop, 2000).

Financial Factors

A review of the literature shows that the average age of the custodial grandparent(s) is 59 years and that 77% are grandmothers raising their grandchild (Fuller-Thomson, Milken, & Driver, 1997). Seniors make up 17% of the poor or near-poor population (Schneider, Kropf, & Kisor, 2000). The additional cost of raising a grandchild places grandparents at a higher risk for living in poverty. Often parents do not provide any or consistent financial support for their child. Additionally, they make no arrangements for health, dental, or other insurance for the child. In most instances, the grandparents have informal custody of their grandchildren and therefore do not have the benefit of any supportive counseling, social work intervention, or other resources. As a result, many grandparents are not aware of the programs, resources, or aid that may be available to them from the state, county, or area in which they live. Moreover, the types of services, aid and resources vary by state, county, and area.

Many of these children do not receive Medi-Cal/Medicare or TANF because their grandparents are unaware that legal custody of the child is not required. The Welfare Reform Act of 2001 changed Aid to Families with Dependant Children (AFDC) to Temporary Assistance to Needy Families (TANF). The new program provides aid for 60 months plus a lifetime limit on benefits, and a work requirement. In the case of custodial grandparents, this five-year period is not adequate for most situations, and becomes complicated when the child goes “back and forth” between the parent and grandparent. Often, the employment requirement is not appropriate or realistic for an older or disabled grandparent. It would be important for policy makers to recognize that programs and policies for children being raised by single, young, unwed mothers may be completely inappropriate for children in the custody of their grandparents (Mullen, 1996). Still other grandparents do not want governmental intervention or assistance, and insist on “making do,” fearing the government may take away their grandchildren or cause legal problems for their grown children if they seek aid or assistance.

In some situations grandchildren are suddenly put in their grandparents’ care. Many of the grandparents are employed; even if they are of retirement age,  they continue to work for a variety of reasons. The issue of providing appropriate supervision for the child can cause multiple problems to their employer as well as to the grandparent. Coordination of transportation, supervision for an ill child, and after-school child care adds costs and complications that can ultimately threaten the employment status of the grandparent. The number, age, behavior, maturity, and abilities of the grandchild(ren) directly impact these expenses. Additionally, grandparents often try to make up for lack of parental involvement and “spoil” the individual with items such as computer games and gadgets, designer clothes or shoes, movies, music, sports, and amusement parks that are expensive and can put these families in debt.

The same reasons that contribute to parent' inability to provide for their child may put the grandparent in the situation of paying the living expenses of their adult child. The additional costs of legal help and psychiatric care for all involved may also default to the grandparents (Weber & Waldrop, 2000). The financial implications are vast for families like these. Aid and assistance is often inappropriate or inadequate, and often unknown to those who need it most. Even those of middle and upper income feel the impact of raising their grandchildren on both their lifestyle and retirement plans.

Social Factors

Many grandparents, prior to being responsible for their grandchildren, had a well-developed social system that may have included church, volunteer work, sports, traveling, or hobbies. Each of these systems has a built-in peer group that provides stimulation, support, and socialization on common age-related issues and topics. When grandchildren come to live with grandparents, time, money, and physical energy that used to go to their social group now are redirected to their new responsibilities. As a result, their consistent participation with their peers may decline. More importantly, the reaction of their peer group may be perceived as judgmental. There can be a competitive aspect to the group interaction: sometimes the success of grown children and grandchildren is a measurement of personal accomplishments for this cohort. Having their grown child put them in a situation to raise their grandchild may make the grandparents feel uncomfortable with the peer group, since their position in the social structure has altered. Findings from several studies portray grandparent caregivers as lacking in social support and isolated from their peer group because of the demands of raising children at a point in their lives when they would otherwise have few child care responsibilities (Dowdell,1995; Kelly, 1993; Minkler & Roe, 1993). Whether due to lack of energy, invitation, funds, or desire, the grandparents often discontinue ongoing participation in their prior activities and therefore are at risk for social isolation. To add to this sense of loss, depending on the reasons that they have the grandchild, the grandparents may feel a sense of shame and therefore may retreat from old social contacts.

Since few formal support systems consistently exist, with few places to turn to for help and support, many individuals may become overwhelmed with their responsibilities. Depression, frustration, stress, and anxiety can result and have a negative impact on the quality and consistency of their parenting. Physical and psychological issues are discussed next:  it is important to note here, however, that the lack of an ongoing social support system has an impact on the overall well-being of the grandparent (Minkler & Fuller-Thomson, 1999).

Physical/Psychological Health Factors

Feelings of depression, guilt, shame, blame, and fear are just a few of the possible emotions that can be experienced both by grandchild and grandparent. A national survey revealed custodial grandparents are twice as likely to report clinically relevant levels of depressive symptoms (Minkler & Fuller-Thomson, 1999). Many factors need to be considered; however, this situation would challenge the highest-functioning individual, not only because of intensity, but also because of the duration of the situation. Emotional well-being in older adults can often be measured by their life satisfaction in a variety of roles; this usually includes successful rearing of their young and pleasure from a traditional grandparent relationship with their grandchildren (Schneider, Kropf, & Kisor, 2000). This is not possible when the grown children cannot or will not care for their child(ren). The other consideration is that children in general and adolescents in particular are not noted for any expressions of gratitude and/or appreciation for their care and support. Due to legal, financial, behavioral, or substance-abuse issues, grandparents may have a nonexistent or hostile relationship with their grown child (Weber & Waldrop, 2000). Both of these factors, coupled with a lack of a peer-support system, prevent grandparents from having a sense of satisfaction or recognition that would help sustain and validate their situation, nor do they get a sense of awareness and appreciation from anyone for the current sacrifices they are making for their grandchild.

The marital relationship is stressed by the responsibility for grandchildren. In cases of second marriages where the grown child and grandchildren have no direct blood relationship to the current spouse, resentment of the time, money, and responsibility of the situation may stress the relationship to the point of open conflict, violence, and possible breakup of the relationship. In the Weber & Waldrop (2000) study, 39% of the family units experienced marital problems, and 37% of the study’s family units were second marriages. The marital strife can add additional anger toward the grown child or sense of blame by the grandchildren.

The quality of the relationship the grandparent has with a grown child is extremely important. If the grandchild is used as a pawn in the power struggle between the two adults, fear of the child's being taken away from the grandparent is an ongoing stressor that creates uncertainty in the child and undermines the overall ability to parent and provide stability for the child..

Many older adults look forward to a time of peacefulness and of less regimentation. The ability to cope in a positive, productive parental way is taxing on the young parent and much more so on the custodial grandparent. Wisdom may help with insight and intervention, but it does not aid in endurance or patience. Children with special needs bring additional behavioral and medical concerns. Their need for psychiatric intervention and counseling, additional help with schoolwork, and possibly medical attention and medications increases the overall cost, energy and time, for the grandparent.

The focus tends to be on the negative implications for these families. In a study done in 1993, Minkler and Roe found some positive aspects of raising grandchildren. They reported that some grandparents developed a renewed sense of purpose, and others reported more motivation to pay attention to their own health and to stay “young.” Some grandparents seemed grateful for a “second chance” at parenting. Still others reported the pleasure in the “sheer fun that children bring.” The positive emotional outcomes were directly correlated to the grandparents’ sense of confidence in decisions regarding their grandchildren, and this sense of confidence enhances the well-being of the grandparent (Bullock, 2005; Kelly, Whitely, & Sipe, 2001.

The ability to accurately measure the medical impact for grandparents is complicated by the expected decline with age and the population risk percentage of those who will suffer from diagnoses such as heart disease, hypertension, diabetes, arthritis, cancer, and dementia-related illnesses. These situations are devastating on their own; add the responsibility of a dependant minor, and treatment of these diseases becomes more complex. The stress of caring for a grandchild may not cause a disease to occur; however, research does support the concept that stress can make an existing disease worse or accelerate the onset of a disease (Whitely, Kelly, & Sipe, 2001). The lack of insurance, time, energy, or money may delay a grandparent from seeing a physician and may affect compliance with treatment, diet, or follow-up with a doctor. Issues of safety are a concern if the grandparent has memory loss or confusion. The ability to drive and to provide appropriate supervision and nutrition needs to be assessed. Grandparents fear grandchildren will be taken from them if they are ill in any way, so they may delay any tests or exams, despite having symptoms.

Legal Factors

The legal concerns these families present are not easily resolved, and the legal process can exacerbate the underlying family dynamics, and dysfunction. Many grandparents apply for legal custody, guardianship, or in some cases, adoption (Jendrek, 1994). In most cases, however, grandparents do not have legal guardianship of the grandchild. The grandparent without custodial rights may find it difficult to sign consents for medical treatment, enroll the child in school, obtain medical insurance, and maintain long-term stability for the child. Temporary legal custody is easier to obtain, yet temporary legal authority causes a yo-yo effect. Several grandparents used this term to describe the situation that occurs when children go back and forth between parents and grandparents. The children tend to stay with their parent until another crisis and then go back to a grandparent (Weber & Waldrop, 2000). Adoption is an option grandparents may wish to pursue when they want a more permanent situation or fear the adult child may take the child back into an unsafe situation. Adoption requires termination of parental rights, which can occur either voluntarily or involuntarily in court. This can make the ongoing relationship between grandparents and their child hostile or vindictive, and cause the grandparent to experience feelings of sorrow and loss (Weber & Waldrop, 2000).

Grandparents raising grandchildren is fraught with complex issues: financial, social, health, and legal. Given that “grandfamilies” are a quickly expanding population, society must be aware of and address the needs and issues that impact not only these children but the grandparents who are once again in a parenting role.

References

Bullock, K. (2005). Grandfathers and the impact of raising grandchildren. Journal of Sociology and Social Welfare, 32(1), 43–59.

Dowell, E. B. (1995). Caregiver burden: Grandmothers raising their high risk grandchildren. Journal of Psychological Nursing, 33, 27–30.

Fuller-Thomson, E., & Minkler, M. (1997). A profile of grandparents raising grandchildren in the United States. Gerontologist, 37(3), 406–411.

Jendrek, M. (1994). Grandparents who parent grandchildren: Circumstances and decisions. Gerontologist, 34, 206–216.

Kelly, S. J. (1993). Caregivers’ stress in grandparents raising grandchildren. Image: Journal of Nursing Scholarship, 25, 331–337.

Kelly, S. J., Whitely, D., Sipe, T. A., & York, B. C. (2000). Psychological distress in grandmother kinship care givers: The role of resources, social support, and physical health. Child Abuse and Neglect, 24(3), 311–321.

Lugaila, T. (1998). Marital status and living arrangements. In Current population reports (Series P20-514). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

Minkler, M., & Fuller-Thomson, E. (1999). The health of grandparents raising grandchildren: Results of a national study. American Journal of Public Health, 89, 1384–1389.

Minkler, M., & Roe, K. (1993). Grandmothers as caregivers: Raising children of the crack cocaine epidemic. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.

Mullen, F. (1996). Public benefits: Grandparents, grandchildren, and welfare reform. Generations, 20, 61–64.

Racicot, L. (2003, April). Understanding the needs and issues of grandfamilies: A survey of grandparents raising grandchildren. Paper presented at the biennial meeting of the Society for Research on Child Development, University of Massachusetts, Amherst

Schneider, R.L., Kropf, N.P,,& Kisor, A.J.(Eds). (2000).Gerontological social work, 33(2), 27-46.

Weber, J. A., & Waldrop, D. P. (2000). Grandparents raising grandchildren: Families in transition. Journal of Gerontological Social Work, 33(2), 27–46.